The contrastive analysis of morphological characteristics of English and Ukrainian verbs

Работа из раздела: «Иностранные языки и языкознание»

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Contents

• Introductoin
• 1. Typological characteristics and classes of the english and ukrainian verbs
• 1.1 Classes of Verbs in English vs. Ukrainian
• 2. Morphological categories of the english and ukrainian verb
• 2.1 The categories of person and number
• 2.2 The category of tenses
• 2.3 The category of aspect
• 2.4 The category of voice
• 2.5 The category of mood
• Conclusion
• Resume
• Bibliography
• Supplements 1. Tables

Introductoin

Diploma paper is devoted to a complex comparison of morphological characteristics of English and Ukrainian verbs. It describes the typological characteristics, morphological categories of the English and Ukrainian verbs, their differences and common features.

The paper 'The contrastive analysis of morphological characteristics of English and Ukrainian verbs ' is an attempt to fill up some of the gaps at certain points of contrastive morphology, such as the realisation of the categories of person and number, tense, aspect, voice, mood with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means. All this predetermined the importance of the work.

The aim of the present research is to compare the morphological characteristics of English and Ukrainian verbs.

In accordance with the aim we planned working on the following tasks: - to study the classes of English and Ukrainian verbs; - to determine the morphological categories of English and Ukrainian verbs; - to analyze differences and common features in the categories of person, number, tense of English and Ukrainian verbs; - to analyze differences and common features in the categories of aspect, voice, mood of English and Ukrainian verbs.

The object of research is the verb and its morphological characteristics in English and Ukrainian languages.

The subject of research is the contrastive description of morphological characteristics of English and Ukrainian verbs.

The Theoretical basis for our paper is the works by KorunetsI. V., IlyishB. A., Rayevska N. M., Kayshanskaya V. L.

The methods of investigation included contrastive, distributive, componential analyses, statistic methods.

The theoretical value of the research is in elaboration of certain aspects of typology of the morphological systems of English and Ukrainian languages.

The practical value is in the possibility to apply its results in special courses of Grammar and Contrastive Typology of the English and Ukrainian languages

1. Typological characteristics and classes of the english and ukrainian verbs

This part of speech in English and Ukrainian has the largest number of features in common. They include first of all the general implicit meaning (the lexico-grammatical nature) of the verb which serves to convey verbiality, i. e. different kinds of activity (go, read, skate), various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother, worry), possession (have, possess), etc. Due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some combinations a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the object) of the sentence, for example: The sun shines. The trees grow. The student passed his examinations. Сонце світить. Дерева ростуть. Студент склав іспити; b) The verb goes into combination with verbs (to want to know, to want to read; хотіти вчитися/знати) or with adverbs (to read well гарно читати); с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) and also with conjunctions (neither read nor write, to work and rest ні читали, ні писати, працювати і відпочивати).

Allomorphic [22: 231] is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (cf. sit down, stand up, put off, read through) which need not be confused or in any way compared to their ability of being identified with the Ukrainian subjunctive mood particles б or би (as in піти б, хотів би, знав би).

As was already mentioned in the foregoing chapter, the verb in the contrasted languages has its characteristic stem building suffixes or postfixes. In English these suffixes are: - ate (antiquate, liquidate), - fy (beautify, defy, exemplify); - en (blacken, darken, deepen); - ise (antagonise, colonise, emphasise): - esce (acquiesce, coalesce, phosphoresce). In Ukrainian these distinguishing suffixes are: - ти/-ть (брати, брать); - тися (братися, знатися); - ться (вчиться, молиться), - сь (вчитись, молитись, обмитись, etc.,).

english ukrainian verb morphological

Ukrainian verbs, unlike the English ones, may also be formed with the help of diminutive suffixes - ки, - оньк-и, - ці (спатки, їстки, їстоньки, спатоньки, питоньки, купці - люпці) and some others.

Among the many prefixes that form the verb stem in English, the following are the most often used: ex - (exclaim, excavate); in-/il-, ir- (introduce, illustrate, irrigate, irritate); contra - (contradict); con- (contribute); counter - (counteract); re - (restore, reduce); over - (overflow, overlap); under - (undertake, understand); out - (outfit, outflow); super - (superadd, supervise); sub - (subdue, submit); mis- (mislead, mistrust); un - (unbind, uncover). The most productive verbs forming prefixes in Ukrainian are: в-/у - (вбігти/убігти, внести/ унести); ви - (вибігти/вибігати, вискочити); від-/од - (відбити/ відбивати, оддати/оддавати); до - (довести/доводити); за- (завести/заводити, зайти); з-/с-, зі - (злетіти, з'їхати, сплести, зіпхнути); на - (набрати, нанести).

A number of English verbs are formed with the help of suffixes and prefixes at the same time: ex-, - ate: excommunicate, exculpate; ex-, - ise: exsursionise; hyper-, - ise: hypercriticise; in-, - ate: incapacitate; mis-, - ate: misappropriate, miscalculate; over-, - ise: overemphasise, overspecialise; over-, - ate: overestimate; over-, - fy: over-beautify; re-, - fy reputify; sub-, - fy: subclassify; in-, - ate: indeterminate; under-, - ate: underestimate, underpopulate.

In Ukrainian the suffixes are mostly - ти/-ть, - ТИСЯ/-ТИСБ and prefixes are various: над-/наді-: надбити/надбитися, надібрати; о- (об-) - ати/-ути: оглядати/оглянути; оббити, обводити; пере-, - ти: перебігти, пере-, під-/піді-, підо-, - ти: підбігти, підібрати, підозрювати; по-/попо-, - ти: понабігати, попоходити; про-, - ти: пройти, пробити; роз-/розі-: - ти, - тися, - ати, - тися: розвести/розвестися, розігнати/розігнатися.

Many Ukrainian verbs are formed from other parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals) by adding suffixes to their stems. The suffixes are: - а-: обід-а-ти, сідл/о/-а-ти, дужч-а-ти, кращ-а-ти, коса - кос-и-ти, барабан-и-ти, білий - біл--и-ти; - і-: розум-і-ти, звір-і-ти; білий - біл-і-ти, двоє - дво-ї-ти; - ува-: зима - зим-у-вати, агітація - агіт-ува-ти, пильний - пиль-н-ува-ти, четвертий - четверт-ува-ти, etc. The suffix - ну-/-ні - is added to adjectival roots: блідий - блід-ну-ти; густий - гус-ну-ти, міцний - міц-ні-ти.

Some suffixes in Ukrainian form aspective (durative, perfective) meanings of verbs. The suffixes are added to prefixal verbs, eg: ува-/-юва-: прочитати - прочит-ува-ти; загоїти - заго-юва-ти; - в-/-ува-: перевиховати - перевихов-ува-ти, etc.

То express a sudden action the suffix - ну - is used in Ukrainian: колоти - коль-ну-ти, штовхати - штовх-ну-ти, копати - коп-ну-ти, нявкати - нявк-ну-ти, мек-ну-ти, etc.

The number of Ukrainian verbs formed by means of suffixes and prefixes is less numerous than their number in English. When formed from verbs, the following prefixes and suffixes are used: під-+-ува-: підсвіч-ува-ти. підтак-ува-ти: по-+-ува-/-юва: посвист-ува-ти. почит-ува-ти. за-+-ти-ся/-сь - засидітись, забаритися', з-/с-, зі+-ся зійтись, змовитися; роз-+-ся: розлетітись, роз'їхатися: над-+-и-: надкусити, надломити, по-надломлюв-а-ти.

Similarly formed are also verbs from noun stems/roots: земля - заземлити: from adverbial stems: інакіие - переінакшити: from adjectival stems: швидкий - пришвидчити: from pronominal stems (never used in English to form verbs): свій - присвоювати: from the stems of numerals: троє - потроювати: двоє - подвоїти.

1.1 Classes of Verbs in English vs. Ukrainian

The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in the contrasted languages. These are a) notional verbs (go, ask, write; іти, запитувати, писати) and b) auxiliary verbs. The latter split into primary (be, do, have; бути, мати), modal (can, may, must, could, should, need; могти, мусити, сміти, мати, etc.) and linking verbs (appear, look, become turn grow; ставати, здаватися).

English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not

available in Ukrainian. These are 1) regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the ending, - ed, - d or - t (dressed/worked, paid/said, learnt/sent);

2) irregular verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by way of alteration of their base vowel (bind - bound - bound, take - took - taken, begin - began - begun). Some irregular verbs also have vowel mutation + the past indefinite/past participle - d or - t ending (tell - told - told, keep - kept - kept, think - thought - thought). There are also some mixed-type verbs in English (show - showed - shown, crow - crew - crowed). A separate subclass of irregular verbs form the so-called invariables, which have the same form for the present and past stem/past participle, eg: cast - cast - cast, cost - cost - cost, let - let - let, put - put - put, etc. They are not available in Ukrainian, thought suppletive verbs are common, however, (cf. be - was - were, go - went; бути - є, іти - пішов, пішла, брати - взяв, узяли).

The subdivision of verbs into classes is based in Ukrainian on the correlation between the infinitival stem of the verb on the one hand and its present or simple future stem on the other. On this morphological basis thirteen classes of verbs are distinguished in Ukrainian (Table 1). In the first class of verbs the infinitival stem has the suffixes - ува-/-юва, and the present tense stem the suffix - y/ю,: куп-ува-ти - куп-y-ють; танц-юва-ти - танц-ю-ють; лупц-юва-ти - лупц-ю-юmь.

The verbs of the second class have the suffix - ва - in the infinitival stem and the suffix ва - in the present tense/simple future stem: бувати - /по/бу-ва-ють. The verbs of the third class have the suffix - а-/-я - in the infinitival stem and the suffix - aю - in the present/simple future stem: баж-a-mu - баж-a-юmь, стріл-я-ти - стріл-я-ють. In the fourth class are verbs with the - i - suffix in the infinitival stem and the - i - suffix in the present/simple future stem: чорн-і-ти - чор-ну-уть; шал-і-ти - шал-i-ють. In the fifth class the verbs have the - а-/-я - suffix in the infinitival stem, the zero suffix in the present/simple future tense stem and the - уть/-ють ending in the third person plural: бра-ти - бер-уть, сл-а-mu - шл-ють, смі-я-тися - смі-ються. In the sixth class are verbs with the - i - suffix in the infinitival stem and the zero suffix in the present stem: рев-і-ти - рев-уть, хот-і-ти - хоч-уть (Table 1).

Morphological Classes of Ukrainian Verbs (Table 1).

Class	Suffixes	Verbs Representing the Class	Dec lens
	Infinitival Stem	Present Stem	Infinitive	Present Tense
I	-ува- /-юва-/ ва-	-y- ю- ю-	буд-ува-ти прац-юва-ти да-ва-ти	буд-y-ю /-еш, - уть/ прац-ю-ю /-еш, - уть/ да-ю /еш, - уть/	І
II	-ва-	-вaю-	бу-ва-ти	бу-вaю /-еш, - уть/	І
III	-а-/-я-/	-aю- /-яю-/	пуск-а-ти рівн-я-ти	пуск-a-ю /-еш, - уть/ рівн-я-ю /-еш, - уть/	І
IV	- і -	/-iю-/	сив-і-ти біл-і-ти	сив-i-ю /-еш, - уть/ біл-i-ю /-еш, - уть/	І
V	-а-/-я-/	0	каз-а-ти смі-я-тися	каж-у /-еш,-уть/ смі-юся /-ешся, - ються/	І
VI	-і-	0	рев-і-ти хот-і-ти	рев-у /-еш, - уть/ хоч-у /-еш, - уть/	І
VII	-ну- ону-	-н- он-	крик-ну-ти трус-ону-ти	крик-н-у /-еш, - уть/ трус-он-у /-еш, - уть/	І
VIII	0	0	нес-ти, вес-ти мести, плив-ти	нес-у /вед-у /-еш, - уть/ мет-у /плив-у /-еш, - уть/	І
IX	0	-ю-	ри-ти, кри-ти ви-ти, пи-ти	ри-ю /кри-ю/ - еш, - ють/ ви-ю /n'-ю/ - еш, - ють/	І
X	-и - /ї/	0	вод-и-ти по-ї-ти	водж-у/вод-иш, вод-ять/ no-ю /-їш, - ять/	II
XI	-а-	0	крич-а-ти, мовч-а-ти	крич-у /-иш, - ать/ мовч-у /-иш, - ать/	II
XII	-і-	0	гор-і-ти, лет-і-ти	гор-ю/-иш, - ять леч-у лет-иш, лет-ять/	II
XIII	0	0	біг-ти	біж-у /біж-иш, біж-ать/	II

Verbs of the seventh class have the - ну - (-ону-) suffix in the infinitival stem and the - н - (-ну-) suffix in the simple future tense stem: гук-ну-ти, гук-н-уть, крик-ну-ти, крик-н-уть. Verbs of the eighth class have a zero suffix in each of the two stems and the ending - уть - in the third person plural: нес-ти - нес-уть, вез-ти - вез-уть. Verbs of the ninth class have a zero suffix in the infinitival stem, - ю - suffix in the present tense stem and the ending - ють - in the third person plural: pu-mu - pu-ють, кри-ти - кри-юmь. Verbs of the tenth class have the - и- (-ї-) suffix in the infinitival stem, a zero suffix in the present tense stem and the - ать - ending in the third person plural: вод-ити - водж-у.

Verbs of the eleventh class have an - a - suffix in the infinitival stem, a zero suffix in the present tense stem and the - ать - ending in the third person plural: крич-у - крич-ать, мовч-у - мовч-ать.

Verbs of the twelfth class have an - i - suffix in the infinitival stem and a zero suffix in the present stem: гор-і-ти - гор-ю, лет-і-ти - леч-у. Verbs of the thirteenth class have a 0 suffix in both the stems and the ending - ать - in the third person plural: біг-ти - біж-ать. According to their paradigmatic features, verbs of classes I - IX belong to the first declension group, and the rest (classes X - XIII) are of the second declension group. These structural classes of verbs differ from each other by their productivity. The most productive are the first, the third, the fourth, the fifth and the ninth classes. All remaining classes (the second, the sixth, the seventh, the eighth, the tenth, the eleventh, the twelfth, and the thirteenth) are either semantically closed or poorly represented as it is the case with the last two of them.

The personal endings of verbs of the first and of the second declensions do not coincide in Ukrainian as can be seen from the examples below:

Declension IDeclension II

я буваю ми буваємоя ходжу ми ходимо

ти буваєш ви буваєтети ходиш ви ходите

він буває вони буваютьвін ходить вони ходять

As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication split into some common groups singled out on the basis of their implicit dependent grammatical meanings. These groups are:

1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive) like to act, to go, to sleep, to glisten (діяти, йти, спати, блищати and others).2. Objective verbs (only transitive): to give, to take, to envy (брати, давати, заздрити and others).3. Terminative verbs, expressing action having final aims (to close, to open, to come, to find; зачиняти, приходити, заходити).4. Durative verbs, expressing action with no final aim: to like, to love, to hate, to hope, to work (подобатись, любити, ненавидіти).5. Mixed - type verbs, which can have both terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to stand, to know, to remember (сидіти, стояти, знати, пам'ятати, etc).

6. Reflexive verbs, which are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns: oneself, myself, himself, ourselves: to wash oneself, to shave himself; to see herself in the mirror, etc.

Reflexive verbs in Ukrainian have some peculiar allomorphic features. Regular equivalents to English verbs can be observed only in the group of the so-called reflexive verbs proper (to wash oneself, to dress oneself, to shave oneself, to powder oneself, etc.), which have also corresponding forms in Ukrainian (вмиватися, голитися, одягатися, пудритися, купатися, etc.).

Other groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English' and form an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages. These verbs are identified as follows:

1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотні: зустрічатися, змагатися, вітатися, листуватись, цілуватись.2. Indirectly re-flexive/непрямо-зворотні: радитися, збиратися (в похід), лаштуватися (в дорогу).3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні: милуватися, дивуватися, злитися, журитися, мучитися and others.4. Active-objectless/reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні) кусатися (собака кусається), хвицатися (корова хвицається), дряпатися (кішка дряпається), жалитися (кропива жалиться), колотися (стерня колеться).5. Passively-qualitative/reflexive пасивно-якісні: гнутися, битися, ламатися, м'ятися, колотися (дерево гарно колеться), кривитися (залізо гнеться, скло б'ється, дитина кривиться).6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні: не спиться, не їсться, погано/гарно живеться, не лежиться (Cf. the Ukrainian folk-song: I не спиться й не лежиться, І сон мене не бере.).

Closely connected with impersonal and reflexive verbs in Ukrainian are a number of impersonal verbs used to form impersonal sentences. These verbs constituting semantically different groups are as follows: вечоріє, дніє, сіріє, розвидняється, примерзає, нудить, хочеться, віриться; не було, не стало, таланить; бракує, вистачає and others.

Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common groups, which are as follows:

1. Auxiliary verbs (to be, to do, to have, shall/will), which are used in English in the corresponding person and tense form to express the following categorial meanings of the verb: a) the continuous aspect, i. e. the present, the past and future continuous/progressive tenses (/ am/ was, shall be reading); the interrogative and negative or future tense forms of the Indefinite group of tenses (Does he speak English? He did not know me. Will he come soon?); the imperative mood/imperative and incentive meanings: Do it now! Do come, please! The perfect aspect forms of the verb: I have done it. He had had his dinner by then already. We shall have translated the text by then. To express the so-called subjunctive form of the verb: He ordered that everybody be present. Whoever you be you have no right to offend him.

To express other subjunctive mood forms: His aunt would not give the photograph. (Hardy) I suggest we should meet here. (Snow) I wish / were fifteen. (Maugham)'If they could be answered, surely they'd have been answered by now.' (Ibid). Auxiliary verbs in Ukrainian are restricted only to one verb бути, which is polyfunctional and is used to form some categorial meanings: a) the passive voice (текст був перекладений); b) the analytical future tense form (текст буде перекладений); с) some subjunctive mood forms (якби я був знав, я був би прийшов); d) the pluperfect tense form, which fully corresponds to the English past perfect. (Cf. Ніби й задрімав був зразу, але щось приверзлося, то й проснувся. (Головко) Я заходив був до вас якось улітку, але вас не застав тоді вдома).

2. Close to the auxiliary by their function (and often by their lexical meaning, too) are English and Ukrainian modal verbs. Their number and nomenclature is larger in English (allomorphism) than in Ukrainian. Cf.: English: can, may, must, should, Ukrainian: вміти, могти, мусити, would, ought (to), have/be, shall, слід/треба, мати (маєш знати, він will, dare, daresay, need. має бути), сміти, потребувати.

Linking verbs (дієслова-зв'язки) in both contrasted languages form a verbal, nominal or mixed-type compound predicate. They fall into three main groups:

Linking verbs of being, which do not always have direct equiv alents in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to be, to feel, to look, to seem, to taste, to smell - бути, виявлятися, зватися, вважатися, доводитися (Не looks young/tired) or in Ukrainian: Це зветься роботою. Це здається правдою).

Linking verbs of becoming (not all of which have equiva lents in Ukrainian): to become, to get, to grow, to turn - ставати, робитися (They grew stronger/Вони стали міцнішими. Ліс зробився рудим.). Не became a teacher - Він став учителем. But: He turned gray/ Він посивів. Вона постаріла. She grew older.

Linking verbs of remaining (to remain, to keep, to stay, to continue): He remained silent/satisfied. Він зостався задоволений. The winter continued damp and wet. (Cronin) The weather kept obstinately hot and dry. (Wells) Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою.

In English and Ukrainian Due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some combinations a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the object) of the sentence, b) The verb goes into combination with verbs с) with prepositions and also with conjunctions

The verb in the contrasted languages has its characteristic stem building suffixes or postfixes. In English these suffixes are: - ate, - fy, - en, - ise, - esce. In Ukrainian these distinguishing suffixes are: - ти/-ть; - тися; - ться; - сь. Ukrainian verbs, unlike the English ones, may also be formed with the help of diminutive suffixes - ки, - оньк-и, - ці. Among the many prefixes that form the verb stem in English, the following are the most often used: ex-; in-/il-, ir-; contra-; counter-; re-; over-; under-; out-; super-; sub-; mis; un-.

The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in the contrasted languages. These are a) notional verbs b) auxiliary verbs. The latter split into primary, modal and linking verbs. English nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not available in Ukrainian. These are 1) regular verbs 2) irregular verbs. The subdivision of verbs into classes is based in Ukrainian on the correlation between the infinitival stem of the verb on the one hand and its present or simple future stem on the other. On this morphological basis thirteen classes of verbs are distinguished in Ukrainian. Verbs ending - уть,-ють belong to the first declension group, the verbs-ать,-ять are of the second declension group. As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication split into some common groups singled out on the basis of their implicit dependent grammatical meanings. These groups are:

1. Subjective verbs,

2. Objective verbs,

3. Terminative verbs,

4. Durative verbs,

5. Mixed - type verbs,

6. Reflexive verbs. Some groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English' and form an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages. These verbs are identified as follows:

1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотн,

2. Indirectly re-flexive/непрямо-зворотні,

3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні,4. Active-objectless/reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні),

5. Passively-qualitative/reflexive пасивно-якісні,

6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common groups, which are as follows:

1. Auxiliary verbs 2. Modal verbs

2. Morphological categories of the english and ukrainian verb

The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six common morphological categories which are realised partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means. Thus, the categories of person and number are realised in both contrasted languages synthetically, whereas the category of tense is realised both synthetically and analytically; the category of aspect is realised in English synthetically or analytically (continuous) but only synthetically in Ukrainian; the category of voice is realised only analytically in English but it may be realised synthetically and analytically in Ukrainian. Similarly with the category of mood, which is realised in both languages synthetically and analytically.

An illustrative presentation of these ways of realisation of all above-named morphological categories is given in Table 2 below.

Table 2

Morphological category	Means of Realisation in the Contrasted Languages
	In English	In Ukrainian
Person	I know. He knows. She is. We are.	Я знаю. Він/вона знає. Воно знає. Ми знаємо. Ви знаєте. Вони знають.
Number	He reads. They read good books.	Він читає. Вони читають книжки.
Tenses (present, past, future) 1. Absolute use of tenses	I work. He works. I worked. He will work. He said she had been seen in London. They asked if 1 could translate that passage into Japanese.	Я працюю. Я працював. Він читає. Він читав. Він читатиме. Він буде читати весь свій вік. Він прокинувся був, а потім знову заснув.
2. Relative use of tenses [47, 144 - 146	/ when he comes she will ask - when he came/had come when he will come	/ Де він мешкає тепер я запитаю - Де він мешкав Де він мешкатиме потім
Aspect (common, continuous, perfect)	He works. He is working (common/ continuous). He will work. He will be working (future). He has worked (perfect).	Він читав. Він прочитав це. Вона зараз тренується. Дощ пройшов. (недоконаний - доконаний вид)
Voice (active - passive)	He reads much. The house is/was built. The house is being built. It will be/will have been built.	Хату ставлять. Хата збудована/ була, буде збудована. Хід зроблено. Школу відкрито/ буде відкрито.
Mood	Indicative: We love our parents. Will he come? He has taken the exam. Imperative: Don't speak so loud! Let me sing you. Let us sing you smth. Subjunctive: Come what may! If she had come, he would have met her. Had 1 been there, I would have helped him.	Ми любимо своїх батьків. Чи прийдете ви взавтра? Він склав іспит. Не розмовляйте так голосно! Сядьте. Нум я вам заспіваю! Будь, що буде! Було б краще мабуть піти. Якби він був прийшов, він був би зустрівся з нею.

The tabulated examples above testify to the existence of both isomorphic and allomorphic features in the nomenclature and means of expressing some morphological categories of the verb in the contrasted languages.

2.1 The categories of person and number

The categories of person and number must be considered in close connection with each other, since in language of the Indo-European family they are expressed simultaneously, i. e. a morpheme expressing person also expresses number.

We shall, however, start by considering the meaning of each of these categories, and then proceed to the analysis of their state in Modern English and Ukrainian.

The category of person in verbs is represented by the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person, and it expresses the relation between the speaker, the person or persons addressed, and other persons and things. The 1st person, of course, expresses the speaker or a group of which the speaker makes a part; the 2nd person, the person or persons spoken to, and the 3rd, that person or thing (or those persons or things) which are neither the speaker nor the person (s) spoken to.

The category of number expresses the quantity of the subjects (one or more than one). Speaking deductively, we might build the following system of personal and numerical categories:

1st person singular - the speaker 1-ша особа однина (пишу, малюю)

2nd person singular-one person spoken to 2-га особа однина (пишеш, малюєш)

3rd person singular - one person or thing 3-я особа однина (пише, малює)

1st person plural - the speaker and another person or other persons 1-ша особа множина (пишемо, малюємо)

2nd person plural - more than one person spoken to 2-га особа множина (пишете, малюєте)

3rd person plural - more than one person or - thing (neither speakers nor spoken to) 3-тя особа множина (пишуть, малюють)

However, this system does not hold good for the Modern English verb, and this for two reasons,

First, there is no distinction of persons in the plural number. Thus, the form live may, within the plural number, be connected with a subject of any person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd).

Second, there is no distinction of numbers in the 1st or 2nd person. Thus, the form live in these persons may refer both to one and to more than one subject.

So what we actually find in the Modern English verb is this:

3rd person singular - lives All the rest - live

If we analyse this state of things in the Modern English verb in exact terms we shall reach the following conclusion. The opposition lives I live, or, in general terms, stem + s / stem + Ш, expresses the relation: 3rd person singular / any person of both numbers except 3rd person singular.

It is quite clear that the first item of the opposition is marked both in meaning (3rd person sing.) and in form (-s), whereas the second item is unmarked both in meaning (everything except the 3rd person sing.) and in form (zero-inflection). We ought to add that the category of mood is implied in this opposition, the form lives belonging to the indicative mood only, whereas live may also be any person of both numbers in the subjunctive mood (as far as we recognise its existence at all). Another consequence of this analysis is, that the - s-inflection in verbs conveys 4 meanings:

1) 3rd person,

2) singular number,

3) present tense,

4) indicative mood. The present tense is of course characterised by other signs as well: by the absence of the - d (or - t) morpheme denoting the past tense in regular verbs, and by alternation of the root vowel (e. g. [э] in drinks as against [ae] in drank) in irregular verbs. But in verbs of the type put the - s is the only distinctive sign of the present.

The ending - s having four meanings to express simultaneously is of course a synthetic feature, standing rather by itself in the general structure of Modern English.

Some verbs do not fit into the system of person and number described above and they must be mentioned separately both in a practical study of the language and in theoretical analysis. We will limit ourselves to the verb can (the verbs may, shall, and some others sharing some of its features) and the verb be, which stands quite apart and, of course, is very widely used.

The verb can, as is well known, takes no - s-inflection parallel to such forms as lives, writes, takes, etc. Hence it follows that this verb has no category of person or number at all.

The verb be has a system of its own both in the present indicative and in the past. Its system in the present indicative is as follows:

1st person singular 3rd person singular	- am - is
2nd person (without distinction of number) Plural (without distinction of person)	- are
In the past tense the system is:
1st and 3rd person singular	- was
2nd person (without distinction of number) Plural (without distinction of person)	were

In analysing the system of person and number we have so far bypassed the forms of the type livest, takest, livedst, tookest. These forms are associated with the personal pronoun thou and are only used in religions and occasionally in poetical texts and among Quakers. As they stand outside the received grammatical system we need not go into details concerning them. Suffice it to say that with these forms the category of number appears within the category of the 2nd person and the whole system of person and number (including the past tense) must be presented in a different shape.

2.2 The category of tenses

In English there are the three tenses (past, present and future) represented by the forms wrote, writes, will write, or lived, lives, will live.

Strangely enough, some doubts have been expressed about the existence of a future tense in English. O. Jespersen discussed this question more than once. [37] The reason why Jespersen denied the existence of a future tense in English was that the English future is expressed by the phrase 'shall/will + infinitive', and the verbs shall and will which make part of the phrase preserve, according to Jespersen, some of their original meaning (shall an element of obligation, and will an element of volition). Thus, in Jespersen's view, English has no way of expressing 'pure futurity' free from modal shades of meaning, i. e. it has no form standing on the same grammatical level as the forms of the past and present tenses.

However, this reasoning is not convincing. Though the verbs shall and will may in some contexts preserve or indeed revive their original meaning of obligation or volition respectively, as a rule they are free from these shades of meaning and express mere futurity. This is especially clear in sentences where the verb will is used as an auxiliary of the future tense and where, at the same time, the meaning of volition is excluded by the context. E. g. I am so sorry, I am afraid I will have to go back to the hotel. Since the verb will cannot possibly be said to preserve even the slightest shade of the meaning of volition here, it can have only one meaning - that of grammatical futurity. Of course numerous other examples might be given to illustrate this point.

It is well known that a present tense form may also be used when the action belongs to the future. This also applies to the present continuous, as in the following example: 'Maroo is coming, my lad,' he said, 'she is coming to-morrow, and what, tell me what, do we make of that?' The adverbial modifier of time, to-morrow, makes it clear that the action expressed by the verb come in the present continuous tense actually belongs to the future. So it might also have been expressed by the future tense: Maroo will come, my lad, she will come to-morrow. But the use of the present continuous adds another shade of meaning, which would be lost if it were replaced by the future tense: Maroo's arrival to-morrow is part of a plan already fixed at the present; indeed, for all we know, she may be travelling already. Thus the future arrival is presented as a natural outcome of actions already under way, not as something that will, as it were, only begin to happen in the future.

So the three main divisions of time are represented in the English verbal system by the three tenses. Each of them may appear in the common and in the continuous aspect. Thus we get six tense-aspect forms.

Besides these six, however, there are two more, namely, the future-in-the-past and the future-continuous-in-the-past. It is common knowledge that these forms are used chiefly in subordinate clauses depending on a main clause having its predicate verb in one of the past tenses, e. g., This did not mean that she was content to live. It meant simply that even death, if it came to her here, would seem stale. However, they can be found in independent clauses as well. The following passage from a novel by Huxley yields a good example of this use: It was after ten o'clock. The dancers had already dispersed and the last lights were being put out. To-morrow the tents would be struck, the dismantled merry-go-round would be packed into waggons and carted away. These are the thoughts of a young man surveying the scene of a feast which has just ended. The tenses used are three: the tense which we call past perfect to denote the action already finished by that time (the dancers had dispersed), the past continuous to denote an action going on at that very moment (the lights were being put out) and the future-in-the-past to denote an action foreseen for the future (the merry-go-round would be packed and carted away). The whole passage is of course represented speech and in direct speech the tenses would have been, respectively, the present perfect, the present continuous, and the future.

The future-in-the-past and future-continuous-in-the-past do not easily fit into a system of tenses represented by a straight line running out of the past into the future. They are a deviation from this straight line: their starting point is not the present, from which the past and the future are reckoned, but the past itself. With reference to these tenses it may be said that the past is a new centre of the system. The idea of temporal centres propounded by Prof.I. Ivanova as an essential element of the English tense system seems therefore fully justified in analysing the 'future-in-the-past' tenses. It should be noted that in many sentences of this kind the relation between the action denoted by the verb form and the time of the utterance remains uncertain: the action may or may not have taken place already. What is certain is that it was future from the point of view of the time when the action denoted by the verb form took place [14].

A different view of the English tense system has been put forward by Prof. N. Irtenyeva. According to this view, the system is divided into two halves: that of tenses centring in the present, and that of tenses centring in the past. The former would comprise the present, present perfect, future, present continuous, and present perfect continuous, whereas the latter would comprise the past, past perfect, future-in-the-past, past continuous, and past perfect continuous. The latter half is characterised by specific features: the root vowel (e. g. sang as against sing), and the suffix - d (or - t), e. g. looked, had sung, would sing, had been singing [17]. This view has much to recommend it. It has the advantage of reducing the usual threefold division of tenses (past, present, and future) to a twofold division (past and present) with each of the two future tenses (future and future-in-the-past) included into the past or the present system, respectively. However, the cancellation of the future as a tense in its own right would seem to require a more detailed justification.

A new theory of English tenses has been put forward by A. Korsakov [40]. He establishes a system of absolute and anterior tenses, and of static and dynamic tenses. By dynamic tenses he means what we call tenses of the continuous aspect, and by anterior tenses what we call tenses of the perfect correlation. It is the author's great merit to have collected numerous examples, including such as do not well fit into formulas generally found in grammars. The evaluation of this system in its relation to other views has yet to be worked out.

Ukrainian Present tense

Historically, this is derived from the Indo-European present tense. In Common Slavic and later Ukrainian, it retained its present meaning only for imperfective verbs and developed a future meaning for perfective verbs [54].

For the е stems (Classes 1, 2, and 3), the endings are:

е stem endings (Table3)
	singular	plural
First Person	-у / - ю	-емо / - ємо
Second Person	-еш / - єш	-ете / - єте
Third Person	-е / - є	-уть / - ють

All verbs whose roots end in a velar undergo the first palatalisation in all forms of the present (even though historically speaking the first person singular should not). The endings in є are used for roots whose stem ends in a vowel. All verbs in Class 3 and those which end in a vowel use - ю and - ють. Furthermore, Class 3 verbs undergo iotification in those forms which use - ю-. For reflexive verbs, in the third person singular, the ending has its historical - ть restored before the participle - ся / - сь is affixed. Thus, the ending becomes - еться.

For the и stems (Class 4), the endings are:

и stem endings (Table 4)
	singular	plural
First Person	-ю / (-у)	-имо / - їмо
Second Person	-иш / - їш	-ите / - їте
Third Person	-ить / - їть	-ать / - ять

All Class 4 verbs undergo iotification in the first person singular. Thus, there is really only one ending, which due to orthographic reasons is given 2 different forms. Verbs ending in a vowel take the endings in the second column. In the third person plural, verbs ending in a labial insert an л before the ending, - ять. The ending - ать is used after the sibilants ж, ш, щ, or ч.

(Table5)

нести (stem: нес-) (Class 1 verb)
	singular	plural
	Ukrainian	English	Ukrainian	English
First Person	несу	I am carrying	несемо	We are carrying
Second Person	несеш	You (sing.) are carrying	несете	You (pl.) are carrying
Third Person	несе	He/She/It is carrying	несуть	They are carrying

вернути (stem: верн-) (Class 2 verb)
	singular	plural
	Ukrainian	English	Ukrainian	English
First Person	верну	I will return	вернемо	We will return
Second Person	вернеш	You (sing.) will return	вернете	You (pl.) will return
Third Person	верне	He/She/It will return	вернуть	They will return

читати (stem: чита-) (Class 3 verb)
	singular	plural
	Ukrainian	English	Ukrainian	English
First Person	читаю	I read	читаємо	We read
Second Person	читаєш	You (sing.) read	читаєте	You (pl.) read
Third Person	читає	He/She/It reads	читають	They read

говорити - (stem: говор-) (Class 4 verb)
	singular	plural
	Ukrainian	English	Ukrainian	English
First Person	говорю	I talk	говоримо	We talk
Second Person	говориш	You (sing.) talk	говорите	You (pl.) talk
Third Person	говорить	He/She/It talks	говорять	They talk

Ukrainian inherited from Indo-European through Common Slavic, the following 3 athematic verbs [54]. These verbs have their own conjugation in the present. Everywhere else they are regular.

дати - to give (perfective) (Table 6)
	singular	plural
First Person	дам	дамо
Second Person	даси	дасте
Third Person	дасть	дадуть

їсти - to eat (imperfective)
	singular	plural
First Person	їм	їмо
Second Person	їси	їсте
Third Person	їсть	їдять

Compounds ending in - вісти
	singular	plural
First Person	-вім	-вімо
Second Person	-віси	-вісте
Third Person	-вість	-відять

Ukrainian Past tense

The past tense in Ukrainian has the peculiarity of being originally an adjective, since it derives from the original compound perfect tense. Thus, the past tense agrees in number and gender with the subject of the verb. The following endings are added to the infinitive with the ending - ти removed (Most root final д and т are dropped):

· masculine singular: - в

· Note: It is lost after с, з, к, г, б, р.

· feminine singular: - ла

· neuter singular: - ло

· plural: - ли

These forms are often called the active past participle I.

Ukrainian future tense

In Ukrainian, there are 2 different future tenses for imperfective verbs. The first form formed by adding to the infinitive of the verb the following endings,:

Future Tense: First Form (Table7)
	singular	plural
	Ending	Example	Ending	Example
First Person	-му	їстиму	-мо	їстимо
Second Person	-меш	їстимеш	-мете	їстимете
Third Person	-ме	їстиме	-муть	їстимуть

The second form, more commonly used, is to take the present tense conjugation of the verb бути and use it with the infinitive of the verb. Thus,

Future Tense: Second Form (Table8)
	singular	plural
First Person	буду їсти	будемо їсти
Second Person	будеш їсти	будете їсти
Third Person	буде їсти	будуть їсти

This will translate as will eat with the appropriate personal pronoun.

2.3 The category of aspect

It is but natural that the verb should take up as much, or indeed, more space than all the other parts of speech we have so far considered, put together. It is the only part of speech in present-day English that has a morphological system based on a series of categories. It is the only part of speech that has analytical forms, and again the only one that has forms (the infinitive, the gerund and the participle) which occupy a peculiar position in its system and do not share some of the characteristic features of the part of speech as a whole.

In analysing the morphological structure of the English verb it is essential to distinguish between the morphological categories of the verb as such, and the syntactic features of the sentence (or clause) in which a form of the verb may happen to be used. This applies especially to the category of voice and, to a certain extent, to the categories of aspect and tense as well.

The order in which we shall consider the categories of the verb may to a certain extent be arbitrary. However, we should bear in mind that certain categories are more closely linked together than others. Thus, it stands to reason that the categories of aspect and tense are linked more closely than either of them is with the category of voice. It is also plain that there is a close connection between the categories of tense and mood. These relations will have to be borne in mind as we start to analyse the categories of the verb.

One last preliminary remark may be necessary here. It is always tempting, but it may prove dangerous, to approach the morphological system of the verb in one language from the point of view of another language, for example, the student's mother tongue, or a widely known language such as Latin. Of course the system of each language should be analysed on its own, and only after this has been done should we proceed to compare it with another. Anyway the assessment of the system of a given language ought not to be influenced by the student's knowledge of another language. Neglect of this principle has often brought about differences in the treatment of the same language, depending on the student's mother tongue.

We will begin the analysis of each verbal category by examining two forms or two sets of forms differing from each other according to that category only.

There are two sets of forms in the Modern English verb which are contrasted with each other on the principle of use or non-use of the pattern 'be + first participle':

writes - is writing wrote - was writing

' will write - will be writing has written - has been writing

etc.

These two sets of forms clearly belong to the same verb write and there is some grammatical difference between them. We will not here consider the question whether the relation between writes and is writing is exactly the same as that between wrote and was writing, etc. We will assume that it is the same relation.

What, then, is the basic difference between writes and is writing, or between wrote and was writing? If we consult the definitions of the meaning of is writing given in various grammar books, we shall find, with some variations of detail, that the basic characteristic of is writing is this: it denotes an action proceeding continuously at a definite period of time, within certain time limits. On the other hand, writes denotes an action not thus limited but either occurring repeatedly or everlasting, without any notion of lasting duration at a given moment. It should be noted here that many variations of this essential meaning may be due to the lexical meaning of the verb and of other words in the sentence; thus there is some difference in this respect between the sentence the earth turns round the sun and the sentence the sun rises in the East: the action mentioned in the former sentence goes on without interruption, whereas that mentioned in the latter sentence is repeated every morning and does not take place at all in the evening, etc. But this is irrelevant for the meaning of the grammatical form as such and merely serves to illustrate its possible applications.

The basic difference between the two sets of forms, then, appears to be this: an action going on continuously during a given period of time, and an action not thus limited and not described by the very form of the verb as proceeding in such a manner.

Now, the question must be answered, how should this essential difference in meaning between the two sets of forms be described. The best way to describe it would seem to be this: it is a difference in the way the action is shown to proceed. Now this is the grammatical notion described as the category of aspect with reference to the Slavonic languages (Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, etc.), and also to ancient Greek, in which this category is clearly expressed.

As is well known, not every verb is commonly used in the form 'be + first participle'. Verbs denoting abstract relations, such as belong, and those denoting sense perception or emotion, e. g. see, hear, hope, love, seldom appear in this form. It should be noted, however, that the impossibility of these verbs appearing in this form is sometimes exaggerated. Such categoric statement give the reader a wrong idea of the facts as they are not verified by actual modern usage. Thus, the verbs see, hope, like, fear and others, though denoting perception or feelings (emotions), may be found in this form, e. g. It was as if she were seeing herself for the first time in a year. The form 'be + first participle' is very appropriate here, as it does not admit of the action being interpreted as momentaneous (corresponding to the perfective aspect in Ukrainian) and makes it absolutely clear that what is meant is a sense perception going on (involuntarily) for some time.

This use of the form is also well illustrated by the following bit of dialogue from a modern short story: 'Miss Courtright - I want to see you,' he said, quickly averting his eyes. 'Will you let me - Miss Courtright - will you?' 'Of course, Merle,' she said, smiling a little. 'You're seeing me right now. ') It might probably have been possible to use here the present indefinite: 'You see me right now,' but the use of the continuous gives additional emphasis to the idea that the action, that is, the perception denoted by the verb see, is already taking place. Thus the descriptive possibilities of the continuous form are as effective here with the verb of perception as they are with any other verb.

A rather typical example of the use of the verb see in the continuous aspect is the following sentence: Her breath came more evenly now, and she gave a smile so wide and open, her great eyes taking in the entire room and a part of the mountains towards which she had half turned, that it was as though she were seeing the world for the first time and might clap her hands to see it dance about her.

Here are some more examples of continuous forms of verbs which are generally believed not to favour these forms: Both were visibly hearing every word of the conversation and ignoring it, at the same time. The shade of meaning provided by the continuous will be best seen by comparing the sentence as it stands with the following variant, in which both forms of the continuous have been replaced by the corresponding indefinite forms: Both visibly heard every word of the conversation and ignored it, at the same time. The descriptive character of the original text has disappeared after the substitution: instead of following, as it were, the gradual unfolding of the hearing process and the gradual accumulation of 'ignoring', the speaker now merely states the fact that the two things happened. So the shades of meaning differentiating the two aspect forms are strong enough to overcome what one might conventionally term the 'disclination' of verbs of perception towards the continuous aspect.

We also find the verb look used in a continuous form where it means 'have the air', not 'cast a look': Mr March was looking absent and sombre again. This is appropriate here, as it expresses a temporary state of things coming after an interruption (this is seen from the adverb again) and lasting for some time at least.compare also the verb hope: You're rather hoping he does know, aren't you? If we compare this sentence and a possible variant with the present indefinite: You rather hope he does know, don't you? we shall see that the original text serves to make the idea of hope more emphatic and so the form of the continuous aspect does here serve a useful purpose. But I'm hoping she'll come round soon. Let us again compare the text with a variant: But I hope she'll come round soon. The difference in this case is certainly much less marked than in the preceding example: there is no process going on anyway, and it is clear from the context (especially the adverbial modifier soon) that the feeling spoken of only refers to a very limited space of time. So the extra shade of meaning brought by the continuous form appears to be only that of emphasis.

Our next example is of the link verb be in the continuous aspect form: There were a few laughs which showed however that the sale, on the whole, was being a success. With the non-continuous form substituted: There were a few laughs which showed however that the sale, on the whole, was a success. In this instance, once more, the difference would appear to be essential. In the text as it stands, it is certain that the laughs mentioned were heard while the sale was still going on, whereas in the second variant this is left to conjecture: they might as well have been heard after the sale was concluded, when some people were discussing its results. So the continuous form of the link verb has an important function in the sentence.compare also the following: You are being presumptuous in a way you wouldn't be with anyone else, and I don't like it.compare also: 'I think you are being just,' Charles said. Here the continuous is perhaps more necessary still, as it clearly means that the person's behaviour in a certain concrete situation is meant, not his general characteristic, which would be expressed by saying, 'I think you are just.' Compare also: Perhaps I'm being selfish. The link verb be is also used in the continuous aspect in the following passage: What I think is, you're supposed to leave somebody alone if he's at least being interesting and he's getting all excited about something. He is being interesting obviously means here, 'he is behaving in an interesting way', or 'he is trying to be interesting', and it implies a certain amount of conscious effort, whereas he is interesting would merely mean that he has this quality as a permanent characteristic, without reference to any effort of will and without limitation to any period of time.compare also: Now you are being rude.

Each of the two aspects must be given some name which should of course be as adequate as possible to the basic meaning of the aspect. It seems easier to find a name for the type is writing than for the type writes. The term continuous aspect has now been in use for some time already and indeed it seems very appropriate to the phenomenon which it is used to describe. As to the type writes, a term is rather more difficult to find, as the uses of this form are much more varied and its intrinsic meaning, accordingly, less definite. This state of things may be best of all described by the term common aspect, which is indefinite enough to allow room for the various uses. It also has the merit of being parallel with the term common case, which has been discussed above and which seems the best to denote the phenomenon if a case system in English nouns is recognised at all. Thus we will use the terms continuous aspect and common aspect to denote the two aspects of the Modern English verb.

However, the problem of aspects and their uses is by no means exhausted. First of all we must now mention the uses of the continuous aspect which do not easily fit into the definition given above. Forms of this aspect are occasionally used with the adverbs always, continually, etc., when the action is meant to be unlimited by time. Here are some typical examples of this use: He was constantly experimenting with new seed. Rose is always wanting James to retire. The adverbial modifier always shows that Rose's wish is thought of as something constant, not restricted to any particular moment. So the difference between the sentence as it stands and the possible variant, Rose always wants James to retire does not lie in the character of the action. Obviously the peculiar shade of meaning in the original sentence is emphatic; the action is represented as never ceasing and this gives the sentence a stronger emotional colouring than it would have with the form of the common aspect: the lexical meaning of always is reinforced by the emphatic colouring of the continuous aspect. It is quite clear that these are exaggerated statements, where the form of the continuous aspect is used emotionally, to present an action as going on and on without interruption, whereas that, in the nature of things, is not possible. Such a use is consistent with the basic meaning of the form and illustrates its possible stylistic applications. We shall have to refer to it to elucidate some moot questions concerning these forms. It is the descriptive value of the continuous aspect forms which makes such a use possible at all.

The interpretation of the opposition writes - is writing given above is not the only one to be found in works dealing with the English language. We will now consider some different interpretations proposed by various scholars.

O. Jespersen [37] treated the type is writing as a means of expressing limited duration, that is, in his own words, expressing an action serving as frame to another which is performed within the frame set by that first action. A somewhat similar view has been propounded by Prof. N. Irtenyeva, [17] who thinks that the basic meaning of the type is writing is that of simultaneity of an action with another action. In assessing these views it must be said that they are plausible for some cases, especially for a complex sentence, in which the type writes is used in the main clause, while the type is writing is used in the subordinate clause, or vice versa. This can only be found when the narration refers to the past time, as in the following example: Bat once she was in the car and Andre was bending over her, tucking her rug about her, her sense of freedom left her. This use is of course very common. The view propounded by these authors does not fit in with the use of the present is writing, which is never, for aught we know, used in a complex sentence of that structure. In sentences such as What is he doing? He is reading, there is no other action with which the action expressed by the type is writing could be simultaneous or to which it might be a 'time frame'. N. Irtenyeva [17, с.82] answers this possible objection by saying that in such cases the action expressed by the is writing type is simultaneous with the act of speech [17, с.83].

However, that completely changes the situation. The act of speech is not mentioned in the speech. Moreover, simultaneity with the act of speech is the definition of the present tense, and not of the type is writing as such. Besides (and this appears to be very essential) if we take simultaneity with another action to be the basic meaning of the type is writing we cannot account for that descriptive power which this type obviously has in the cases when it is used in connection with such adverbs as always. Thus a view which does not take into account the category of aspect in this matter does not appear to be convincing.

Another view is held by Prof. I. Ivanova [14, с.57] She recognises the existence of the aspect category in English, but treats it in a peculiar way. According to Prof. Ivanova, is writing is an aspect form, namely that of the continuous aspect, but writes is not an aspect form at all, because its meaning is vague and cannot be clearly defined. So the author reaches the conclusion that some finite forms of the Modern English verb have the category of aspect, and are in so far 'aspect-tense forms', while others have no aspect and are therefore 'purely tense forms'. Concerning this view it must be said that on the basic point it agrees with the view put forward above: the distinction between the type writes and the type is writing is a distinction of aspect. But Prof. Ivanova denies the existence of the common aspect. This seems rather a difference of wording than one of essence. 'No aspect' seems something like another version of 'common aspect'. And it must be said that the idea of 'common aspect' answers the facts better than does the idea of 'no aspect'. The difficulty of formulating the meaning of the common aspect need not worry us. That is one more case of distinction between a marked and a non-marked member of an opposition. The continuous aspect is marked both in meaning and in form (be + first participle), whereas the common aspect is non-marked both in meaning and in form; no formal characteristic of the common aspect can be given except the negative one: in contradistinction from the continuous aspect, it is not expressed by 'be + first participle'. Thus the theory of common and continuous aspect may be upheld.

Besides the various theories put forward with reference to the opposition writes - is writing, we must mention various terms that have been proposed to denote its members. H. Sweet used the term 'definite tenses' for what we call the continuous aspect [52]. This term cannot be said to be a happy one, as the word 'tense' disguises the fact that we find here a peculiar grammatical category different from that of tense.

Another term which has been used is, 'expanded form', or 'progressive form'. The term 'form' cannot be described as satisfactory since it leaves the basic grammatical question open: we might as well speak of the past form, or of the passive form, etc. As to the adjectives modifying the word form, it must be said that expanded merely gives a characteristic of the analytical structure of the form, without indicating its meaning. As to progressive, it does indicate the meaning, but is hardly preferable to the adjective continuous. So we will stick to the term 'continuous aspect'.

The problem of aspect is intimately connected with a lexicological problem, which we shall therefore have to touch upon here. It may be well illustrated by the following series of examples. If we have, for example, the sentence, A young man sat in the corner of the room, we can say, instead, A young man was sitting in the corner of the room, without affecting the basic meaning of the sentence. The same situation may be described in both ways, the only difference between them being that of stylistic colouring: the variant with the common aspect form is more matter-of-fact and 'dry', whereas the one with the continuous aspect form is more descriptive.

The absence of any actual difference in meaning in such a case is brought out in the following passage from a modern novel: Mr Bodiham was sitting in his study at the Rectory. The nineteenth-century Gothic windows, narrow and pointed, admitted the light grudgingly; in spite of the brilliant July weather, the room was sombre. Brown varnished bookshelves lined the walls, filled with row upon row of those thick, heavy theological works which the second-hand booksellers generally sell by weight. The mantelpiece, the overmantel, a towering structure of spindly pillars and little shelves, were brown and varnished. The writing-desk was brown and varnished. So were the chairs, so was the door. A dark red-brown carpet with patterns covered the floor. Everything was brown in the room, and there was a curious brownish smell. In the midst of this brown gloom Mr Bodiham sat at his desk.

By comparing the first and the last sentence of this passage it will be seen that they tell of the same situation, but in different ways. The first sentence is clearly descriptive, and it opens a rather lengthy description of Mr Bodiham's room, its furniture, books, etc. The last sentence of the passage, on the other hand, confirms the fact that Mr Bodiham sat in his study, as if summing up the situation. So the same fact is told a second time and the difference in the stylistic qualities of the continuous and the common aspect is well brought out.

On the other hand, if we have the sentence He brought her some flowers and if we substitute was bringing for brought and say, He was bringing her some flowers, the meaning will be affected and the two facts will be different. With the common aspect form brought the sentence means that the flowers actually reached her, whereas the continuous aspect form means that he had the flowers with him but something prevented him from giving them to her. We might then say that he sat = he was sitting, whereas he brought ? he was bringing. What is the cause of this difference? Here we shall have to touch on a lexicological problem, without which the treatment of the continuous aspect cannot be complete. The verb sit differs from the verb bring in an important way: the verb sit denotes an action which can go on indefinitely without necessarily reaching a point where it has to stop, whereas the verb bring denotes an action which must come to an end owing to its very nature. It has now been customary for some time to call verbs of the sit type cursive, or durative, and verbs of the bring type terminative. We may then say that with cursive, or durative verbs, the difference between the common and the continuous aspect may be neutralised whereas with terminative verbs it cannot be neutralised, so that the form of the common aspect cannot be substituted for the form of the continuous aspect, and vice versa, without materially changing the meaning of the sentence [7].

A final note is necessary here on the relation between the aspects of the English verb and those of the Ukrainian verb. Without going into details, we may assume that the Ukrainian verb has two aspects, the perfective and the imperfective. All other varieties of aspectual meanings are to be considered within the framework of the two basic aspects. It is obvious at once that there is no direct correspondence between English and Ukrainian aspects; for instance, the English continuous aspect is not identical with the Ukrainian imperfective. The relation between the two systems is not so simple as all that. On the one hand, the English common aspect may correspond not only to the Ukrainian perfective but also to the Ukrainian imperfective aspect; thus, he wrote may correspond both to написав and to писав. On the other hand, the Ukrainian imperfective aspect may correspond not only to the continuous but also to the common aspect in English; thus, писав may correspond both to was writing and to wrote. It follows from this that the relation between the English and the Ukrainian aspects may be represented by the following diagram:

English	Common	Continuous
Ukrainian	Perfective	Imperfective

2.4 The category of voice

Languages differ greatly in their idiosyncrasies, i. e. in the forms which they have adopted, in the peculiarities of their usages in the combinative power of words and idiomatic forms of grammar peculiar to that language and not generally found in other languages.

From this point of view the category of voice presents a special linguistic interest. Passive constructions play an important part in the English verb-system. Modern English, especially in its later periods, has developed the use of passive formations to a very great extent.

As a grammatical category voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject indicating whether the action is performed by the subject or passes on to it. Accordingly there are two voices in English: the active and the passive. The active voice shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action. The passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon, that it is the recipient of the action, e. g.:

I wrote a letter. A letter was written by me.

Transformational relations for voice may be symbolised as follows:

N₁ + V_act + N₂ N₂ + V_pass + by + N₁

The choice of the passive construction is often due to the fact that the agent is unknown or the speaker prefers not to speak of him.

Sometimes the agent is dropped altogether when it is unknown, well knows or unimportant. Only the passive makes this economy possible.

The passive voice is known to be expressed by analytic combinations of the auxiliary verb be with the past participle of the notional verb.

Another passive, formed with get as auxiliary and the past participle, seems to be increasing in frequency, though grammarians are at present not agreed as to its status.

The verb get can function in a manner very similar with be, e. g.: My dress got caught on a nail. He got struck by a stone.

To get seems closer to the true passive auxiliary to be in patterns like the following: She got blamed for everything. She gets teased by the other children. He gets punished regularly. But with all the similarity of the two verbs used in such patterns get is unlike be in the primary paradigm. We can say, for instance, He gets punished regularly, but we shall hardly attest Gets he punished regularly?

It should be noted that to get is often used in preference to the verb to be because the true passive would not be clearly distinguishable from combinations of the full predicator be and participial adjective complements.

Compare to be married and to get married. As is known, to be married can have two meanings: 'одружитися' and 'бути одруженим' while to get married is unambiguous: it can mean only 'to arrive at the married state'.

The group to become + past participle expresses primarily state, e. g.:

1) The umbrella is not a possession lightly to be lost. Yet lost it becomes although it should not.2) I have become very sunburnt.

Describing the 'voice' system in English structural grammarians often lay emphasis on the fact that voice, which theoretically indicates whether the subject acts (active voice), is acted on (passive voice), performs the action for itself (dynamic voice), or acts on itself (reflexive voice), is relatively unimportant in English. The passive voice is accordingly regarded as a word-order device for giving emphasis to what would normally be inner or outer complements. H. Whitehall, for instance, makes reference to words forming the inner and outer complements of the standard sentence by the use of passive constructions.

The words to be emphasised are moved to position 1, the verb is transformed into a word-group (be, become or get + V_en) and the original subject (position 1) is hooked onto the end of the sentence by means of the preposition by (occasionally through) (12)

1 2 3 4

The reporter gave him books

1 2 3

He was given books by the reporter

1 2 3

Books were given him by the reporter

As a matter of fact, the communication is exactly the same in the two sentences given above. They represent merely two views of the facts, one from the side of the doer, the other from the side of the thing done. Except for the word order, the form of the verb, and the preposition by they are the same.

It seems practical to make distinction between a) direct or primary passive, b) indirect or secondary passive and c) tertiary or prepositional passive [38].

The direct (primary) passive is formed in most cases from transitive verbs. The subject of the passive construction generally corresponds to the direct object of the verb.

I wrote a letter. A letter was written by me.

Further examples of such formations will be found in patterns known in traditional grammar as the Nominative with the Infinitive, e. g.:

They were not allowed to stay here.

He is said to be most diligent.

The direct passive is fairly common in sentence-patterns with the anticipatory it, e. g.:

It was agreed that we should make such experiments in the open air.

It was arranged that the expedition should start without delay.

Syntactic structures with the direct passive have a high frequency value but there are certain restrictions in their use conditioned by the grammatical organisation of the sentence:

the passive construction is impossible, for instance, when the direct object is expressed, a reflexive pronoun or a noun with a possessive pronoun referring to the same person as the subject of the sentence, as in: He hurt himself. Peter hurt his arm.

there are no passive forms in such phrasal verbs as, for instance, to take part, to take courage, to take flight, to take alarm, to lose heart, to take heart and still others.

Certain phrases of this sort, however, admit of a passive construction, e. g.: to lose sight of, to take care, to take responsibility, to pay attention and some others, e. g:

No responsibility is taken for the loss of personal property (hotel notice).

Attention must be paid to the results of the first experiment.

Such things should not be lost sight of.

On account of the infinite variety of lexical meanings inherent in verbs the structural relations between verbs and their objects are so flexible that to draw a rigid line of demarcation between the different types of objects is, indeed, not an easy thing to dp.

Relations between verbs and their objects vary according to the variant meanings of the verbs themselves as seen in the following instances given by H. Sweet: kill the calf, kill the time, run a risk, run a business, answer a letter, a question, a person, pay the bill, pay six shillings, pay the cabman, fill a pipe, fill an office, etc., etc.

A peculiarity of constitution hardly to be paralleled in other European languages will be found in sentence patterns with different kind of the indirect or secondary passive.

There are a number of verbs which take two objects - a direct and an indirect object. The following are most frequent among them: to allow, to ask, to award, to give, to grant, to leave, to offer, to promise, to send, to show, to teach, to tell.

These verbs admit of two passive constructions:

A book was given to him (the direct primary passive)

He was given a book (the indirect secondary passive)

The indirect (secondary) passive is not infrequent in verb-phrases with the verb to give, such as: to give credit, to give command, to give a chance, to give a choice, to give an explanation, to give an opportunity, to give orders, to give shelter, and the like.

He was given a good to chance to argue.

She is given an opportunity to go to the south in summer.

Suppose, you are given a choice. What would you prefer?

There are many verbs in English which take a direct and an indirect object in the active construction, but they admit only one passive construction - the direct passive, e. g.: to bring, to do, to play, to telegraph and many others. The list could be extended. Other verbs are not reversed in particular turns of meaning. Thus, have has no passive when it is statal, as in: She has gold hair.

Next come constructions with the so-called prepositional or tertiary-passive. What in the active is the object of a preposition connected with a verb or with a verb and its object may be made the subject of a passive construction. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the prepositional object. This 'detached' preposition retains its place after the verb. Familiar examples are:

He was sent for and taken care of.

She could not bear being read to any longer.

He is not to be relied upon.

The prepositional passive is not used with verbs which take two objects, direct and prepositional: to explain something to somebody, to point out, to announce, to dedicate, to devote, to say, to suggest, to propose, etc. They can have only a direct construction, e. g.: The difficulty was explained to them. The mistake to the rule was pointed out to the man. A new-plan was suggested to us.

The prepositional passive is not very frequent in occurrence. Its use is common with rather a limited number of verbs, such as:

1) verbs of saying: to speak about (of, to), to talk about (of), to comment on, etc., e. g.:

The new play was much spoken of.

2) verbs expressing scorn or contempt: to frown at, to laugh at, to mock at, to jeer at, to sneer at, etc., e. g.:

This idea was first jeered at.

He could not understand why his words were laughed at.

3) a miscellaneous group of verbs, such as: to look at, to look upon (on), to look after, to look for, to approve (disapprove) of, to account for, to send for, to rely on, to think of, e. g.:

He was sent for and taken care of.

Here is Irene to be thought of.

Observe, however, that the passive construction with the 'retained' object (or 'remaining accusative') has limits and is impossible with particular verbs or particular objects, e. g.: we can say 'something was fetched me', but scarcely 'I was fetched something'. On the other hand, 'The trouble was spared me' is not so natural as ' I was spared the trouble'. Possibilities are sometimes ever more limited; e. g.: we cannot say either 'I was cost nothing' or 'Nothing was cost me. '

Certain verbs of removal and exclusion (such as: banish, expel, dischange, eject, exclude, exile, forbid) governing two objects are used chiefly in the passive, e. g.:

He was banished the realm. He was dismissed the service.

They have been expelled from the school.

The infinitive as a second object is found with a number of verbs, such as: allow, ask, beg, beseech, bid, command, compel, declare, entreat, feel, force, encourage, incline, induce, know, lead, make, order, observe, persuade, pray, prefer, perceive, presume, pronounce, see, teach, understand, wish, etc.

In terms of grammatical aspects of style, the usefulness of the passive merits special consideration.

The more formal referential character of passive verbal forms as compared to the active voice makes it possible to use them for stylistic purposes, as, for instance, J. Galsworthy masterly does in transferring to his pages the atmosphere of stiffness and cold restraint felt at June's treat dinner:

Dinner began in silence; the women facing one another, and the men. In silence the soup was finished - excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In silence it was handed.

Bosinney ventured: 'It's the first spring day'.

Irene echoed softly: 'Yes - the first spring day'.

'Spring!' said June: 'there isn't a breath of air!' No one replied.

The fish was taken away, a fine fresh sole from Dover. And Bilson brought champagne, a bottle swathed around the neck with white.

Soames said: 'You'll find it dry'.

Cutlets were handed, each pink frilled about the legs. They were refused bu June, and silence fell.

Soames said: 'You'd better take a cutlet, June; there's nothing coming'.

But June again refused, so they were borne away. And then Irene asked: 'Phil, have you heard my blackbird?'.

Bosinney answered: 'Rather - he's got a hunting-song. As I came round I heard him in the square'.

'He's such a darling!'

'Salad, sir?' Spring chicken was removed. But Soames was speaking: 'The asparagus is very poor. Bosinney, glass of Sherry with your sweet? June, you're drinking nothing!'

Passive-voice forms are bulkier than common-voice forms and where there is no real reason to use passives active verb-forms are generally preferable. But passive forms are often quite effective. Sometimes what would be the subject of an active form seems unimportant or is only vaguely identifiable.

The old house has been torn down. We've been locked out again.

Sometimes what would be the subject of an active form is important, and is included in the clause, but for valid rhetorical reasons seems better as complement of agency than as subject.

The college was founded by the local committee. He'll always be dominated by his wife.

When the passive is an infinitive or gerund its use sometimes eliminates awkward subject constructions.

Everyone likes to be liked.

We resented being treated like that.

In impersonal written styles, the passive often serves as a way of keeping the writer out of sight. Examples are numerous. Here are some of them.

The names of such musicians have been mentioned elsewhere.

The importance of observations in this field has always been emphasised.

Passive constructions are often referred to as stilted, indirect and cold, impersonal and evasive. To give its critics their due, the passive, when in large doses, can indeed be ponderous stuffy and bulkier than the active. With all this it is used over and over by best stylists in prose open to none of the preceding objections. This is because it can be most important and useful to shift the centre of communication creating, according to circumstances, varied and effective sentences.

Students will find it helpful to remember that from the point of view of adequate translation into Ukrainian the English passive forms may be subdivided into three groups:

a) those translated by means of active verbal forms with indefinite personal or impersonal sentences, e. g.:

1. You are wanted on the phone.	1. Вас просять до телефону.
2. Were you told to wait for him?	2. Вам сказали почекати на нього?
3. She is regarded as the best student`.	3. Її вважають найкращою студенткою.
4. We are not allowed to use a dictionary.	4. Нам не дозволяють користуватися словником.
5. Не is not to be disturbed on any account.	5. He треба його кожний раз турбувати.
6. I was sure the students would be called in.	6. Я був певний, що студентів запросять.
7. Whose fault that was will never be known.	7. Ніколи не буде відомо, чия це була помилка.
8. He is said to have helped you very much.	8. Кажуть, що він вам дуже допоміг.

b) those translated by using the verb-forms of the middle voice, e. g.:

1. This letter can be pronounced in two ways.	1. Ця буква вимовляється двояко.
Cf. French: Cette lettre se prononce de deux faзons.
2. This quality is not often met with.	2. Таке не часто зустрічається.

c) those translated by the corresponding passive form of the verb, e. g.:

Nothing was said. Нічого не було сказано.

d) patterns with the passive verb-forms which can be translated only by the corresponding active ones because of the lexical character of the verb and restrictions in the use of the past participle of some verbs in our mother tongue, e. g.:

Young Jolyon saw that he had been recognised, even by Winifred, who could not have been more than fifteen	Молодий Джоліон зрозумів, що його впізнала навіть Уініфред; а їй було не більше п'ятнадцяти ро-

when he had forfeited the ків, коли він втратив право right to be considered a For - називатись Форсайтом.

To sum up in brief, the frequency value of passive constructions in English is due to a number of reasons. Emphasis will be laid on the following:

a) There are, in fact, no means in English to avoid the indication of the doer of the action in active constructions.

In other languages there are special uses of the active without indicating the agent. Such are, for instance, indefinite-personal sentences in Ukrainian with the predicate-verb in the 3rd person plural but without exact relevance to the doer of the action.

The indefinite pronoun one and occasionally the personal pronouns we, you and they, as well as the noun people, may be used in this meaning. But for some reason or other the use of such sentence-patterns seems to be restricted, and English instead often shows here a marked preference of passive constructions.

2.5 The category of mood

The category of mood in the present English verb has given rise to so many discussions, and has been treated in so many different ways, that it seems hardly possible to arrive at any more or less convincing and universally acceptable conclusion concerning it. Indeed, the only points in the sphere of mood which have not so far been disputed seem to be these: (a) there is a category of mood in Modern English, (b) there are at least two moods in the modern English verb, one of which is the indicative. As to the number of the other moods and as to their meanings and the names they ought to be given, opinions to-day are as far apart as ever. It is to be hoped that the new methods of objective linguistic investigation will do much to improve this state of things. Meanwhile we shall have to try to get at the roots of this divergence of views and to establish at least the starting points of an objective investigation. We shall have to begin with a definition of the category. Various definitions have been given of the category of mood. One of them (by Academician V. Vinogradov [7, с.581]) is this: 'Mood expresses the relation of the action to reality, as stated by the speaker.' This definition seems plausible on the whole, though the words 'relation of the action to reality' may not be clear enough. What is meant here is that different moods express different degrees of reality of an action, viz. one mood represents it as actually taking (or having taken) place, while another represents it as merely conditional or desired, etc.

It should be noted at once that there are other ways of indicating the reality or possibility of an action, besides the verbal category of mood, viz. modal verbs (may, can, must, etc.), and modal words (perhaps, probably, etc.), which do not concern us here. All these phenomena fall under the very wide notion of modality, which is not confined to grammar but includes some parts of lexicology and of phonetics (intonation) as well.

In proceeding now to an analysis of moods in English, let us first state the main division, which has been universally recognised. This is the division of moods into the one which represents an action as real, i. e. as actually taking place (the indicative) as against that or those which represent it as non-real, i. e. as merely imaginary, conditional, etc.

The indicative

The use of the indicative mood shows that the speaker represents the action as real.

Two additional remarks are necessary here.

The mention of the speaker (or writer) who represents the action as real is most essential. If we limited ourselves to saying that the indicative mood is used to represent real actions, we should arrive at the absurd conclusion that whatever has been stated by anybody (in speech or in writing) in a sentence with its predicate verb in the indicative mood is therefore necessarily true. We should then ignore the possibility of the speaker either being mistaken or else telling a deliberate lie. The point is that grammar (and indeed linguistics as a whole) does not deal with the ultimate truth or untruth of a statement with its predicate verb in the indicative (or, for that matter, in any other) mood. What is essential from the grammatical point of view is the meaning of the category as used by the author of this or that sentence. Besides, what are we to make of statements with their predicate verb in the indicative mood found in works of fiction? In what sense could we say, for instance, that the sentence David Copperfield married Dora or the sentence Soames Forsyte divorced his first wife, Irene represent 'real facts', since we are aware that the men and women mentioned in these sentences never existed 'in real life'? This is more evident still for such nursery rhyme sentences as, The cow jumped over the moon. This peculiarity of the category of mood should be always firmly kept in mind.

Some doubt about the meaning of the indicative mood may arise if we take into account its use in conditional sentences such as the following: I will speak to him if I meet him.

It may be argued that the action denoted by the verb in the indicative mood (in the subordinate clauses as well as in the main clauses) is not here represented as a fact but merely as a possibility (I may meet him, and I may not, etc.). However, this does not affect the meaning of the grammatical form as such. The conditional meaning is expressed by the conjunction, and of course it does alter the modal meaning of the sentence, but the meaning of the verb form as such remains what it was. As to the predicate verb of the main clause, which expresses the action bound to follow the fulfilment of the condition laid down in the subordinate clause, it is no more uncertain than an action belonging to the future generally is. This brings us to the question of a peculiar modal character of the future indicative, as distinct from the present or past indicative. In the sentence If he was there I did not see him the action of the main clause is stated as certain, in spite of the fact that the subordinate clause is introduced by if and, consequently, its action is hypothetical. The meaning of the main clause cannot be affected by this, apparently because the past has a firmer meaning of reality than the future. On the whole, then, the hypothetical meaning attached to clauses introduced by if is no objection to the meaning of the indicative as a verbal category.

The imperative

The imperative mood in English is represented by one form only, viz.come (!), without any suffix or ending.

It differs from all other moods in several important points. It has no person, number, tense, or aspect distinctions, and, which is the main thing, it is limited in its use to one type of sentence only, viz. imperative sentences. Most usually a verb in the imperative has no pronoun acting as subject. However, the pronoun may be used in emotional speech, as in the following example: 'But, Tessie-' he pleaded, going towards her. 'You leave me alone!' she cried out loudly. These are essential peculiarities distinguishing the imperative, and they have given rise to doubts as to whether the imperative can be numbered among the moods at all. This of course depends on what we mean by mood. If we accept the definition of mood given above there would seem to be no ground to deny that the imperative is a mood. The definition does not say anything about the possibility of using a form belonging to a modal category in one or more types of sentences: that syntactical problem is not a problem of defining mood. If we were to define mood (and, indeed, the other verbal categories) in terms of syntactical use, and to mention the ability of being used in various types of sentences as prerequisite for a category to be acknowledged as mood, things would indeed be different and the imperative would have to go. Such a view is possible but it has not so far been developed by any scholar and until that is convincingly done there appears no ground to exclude the imperative.

A serious difficulty connected with the imperative is the absence of any specific morphological characteristics: with all verbs, including the verb be, it coincides with the infinitive, and in all verbs, except be, it also coincides with the present indicative apart from the 3rd person singular. Even the absence of a subject pronoun you, which would be its syntactical characteristic, is not a reliable feature at all, as sentences like You sit here! occur often enough. Meaning alone may not seem sufficient ground for establishing a grammatical category. Thus, no fully convincing solution of the problem has yet been found.

The Subjunctive

The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker, to real facts. In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.

“I wish I were ten years older,” I said.

'Хотів би я бути на десять років старше', - сказав я

The synhetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood. can be traced to the Old English period when the Subjunctive Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic, forms. In Old English the Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different from those of the Indicative.

In course of time most of the inflections were lost and the difference between the forms of the Subjunctive and those of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive which have survived; they are as follows: the Present Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of the verb to be.

(Table9). The Present Subjunctive

to be	to have, to know, to speak, etc.
I be he, she, it be we be you be they be	I have, know, speak he, she, it have, know, speak we have, know, speak you have, know, speak they have, know, speak

The Past Subjunctive

to be	to have, to know, to speak, etc.
I were he, she, it were we were you were they were	_

I. The Present Subjunctive. In the Present Subjunctive the verb to be has the form be for all the persons singular and plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of the. Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). In all other verbs the forms of the Present Subjunctive differ from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood only in the third person singular, which in the Present Subjunctive has no ending - s.

The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future. This form is seldom used in Modern English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, where these forms are archaisms used with a certain stylistic aim. It is also used in scientific language and in the language of official documents, where it is a living form.

Born within the straw-roof'd cot;

Народженого в хатині з солом'яним дахом;,

The Present Subjunctive also occurs in some set expressions.

Be it so!

Хай буде так! Та буде так!

be it from me to contradict you.

У мене й у думках не було суперечити вам.

In American English the Present Subjunctive is used not only in the above mentioned cases but also in colloquial language.

Yates called the hospital and insisted that one of the doctors come to the

phone.

Йейтс зателефонував у госпіталь і зажадав, щоб хто-небудь із лікарів підійшов до телефону

II. The Past Subjunctive. In the Past Subjunctive the verb to be has the form were for all the persons singular and plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding form of the Indicative Mood (the Past Indefinite). Occasionally the form was, which coincides with the form of the Indicative Mood, can be found in the singular.

I know I am affectionate. I wouldn't say it, if I wasn't certain that I am.

The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English and occurs not only in literature but also in colloquial language.

The term `Past Subjunctive' is merely traditional as in Modern English it does not necessarily express a past action. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate clauses it denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; thus it may refer to the present and to the past.

If I were ill I should like to be nursed by you.

Якби я був хворий, я б хотів, щоб за мною доглядали ви.

I want to go everywhere, I wish I were a gipsy

Мені хочеться всюди побувати. Я хотіла б бути циганкою

The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) or shall (which is seldom used) and the infinitive of the notional verb.

Mr. Barkis. proposed that my pocket-handkerchief should be spread upon

the horse's back to dry.

Містер Баркис запропонував покласти мою носову хустку на спину коневі, щоб він просохнув.

Mood auxiliaries have developed from modal verbs, which have lost their modality and serve to form the analytical Subjunctive. Still there are cases when mood auxiliaries retain a shade of modality, for instance the verb might in adverbial clauses of purpose.

Lizzie stood upon the causeway that her father might see her. (Dickens)

Лиззи стояла на дамбі, щоб батько побачив її (міг побачити її)

In modern English the same meaning as is expressed by the Subjunctive Mood may also be rendered by the forms of the Indicative Mood - the Past Indefinite, the Past Perfect and occasionally the Past Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous.

In adverbial clauses of condition the Past Indefinite denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future; the Past Perfect denotes an unreal condition referring to the past.

The room is so low that the head of the tallest of the visitors would touch the

blackened ceiling if he stood upright.

Кімната така низька, що голова найвищого з відвідувачів торкнулася б закопченого стелі, якби він випрямився.

In other types of subordinate clauses the Past Indefinite denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; the Past Perfect denotes an action prior to that of the principal clause.

He sat looking at the horse's ears as if he saw something new

there.

Містер Варкі сидів, дивлячись на вуха коня, начебто він бачив там що- те нове.

Imperative active mood in Ukrainian

The imperative mood is used to give commands. It exists in only the present tense in Ukrainian. There are no forms for the 1^st person singular. In Ukrainian, the imperative mood is formed from the stem of the verb plus the following endings (The example is based on Ukrainian пити):

Imperative Mood in Ukrainian
	singular	plural
First Person	none	-ьмо / - ймо / - мо / - імо (пиймо)
Second Person	-ь / - й / - 0 - / - и (пий)	-ьте / - йте / - те / - іть (пийте)
Third Person	хай or нехай + 3rd person present singular (хай п'є or нехай п'є)	хай or нехай + 3rd person present plural (хай п'ють or нехай п'ють)

The first set of endings is to be used for stems that end in a dentals (з, д, т, с, н, and л). The second set of ending is used for stems that end in a vowel. The third set of endings is used for stems that end in labials or post-alveolar sibilants (б, в, м, п, ф, ш, щ, ч, ж, and р). The fourth set of endings is used with verbs whose unaffixed form (no prefixes or suffixes) have the stress on the ending in the first person singular of the present tense. Thus for example, бери and вибери.

Finally note that all verbs with stems that end in к and г undergo the first palatalisation. Class 3 verbs with stems in к, г, and с undergo iotification (as do their present conjugation).

Conditional active mood in Ukrainian

The conditional mood is used to state hypothetical states, wishes, and desires. It has 2 tenses in Ukrainian: a present and a past.

Present tense

The present conditional is formed in Ukrainian from the participle би, which is derived from the archaic aorist conjugation of the verb, бути, and the active past participle I, which is the same as the past indicative participle. Thus, there is agreement between the subject and the participle. An example of this construction would be я би хотів. (I would like.).

Past tense

The past conditional is formed in Ukrainian from the participle би followed by the active past participle I form of the verb бути (був, була, було, були) and then the active past participle I of the verb. Both participles must agree with the subject. An example of this construction would be як я би був знав. (had I (had) known.).

Generally common, with the exception of the continuous aspect, which is not available in Ukrainian, is the nomenclature and nature of the existing morphological categories of the verb. Absolute isomorphism is also observed in the means of realisation of the following morphological categories in the contrasted languages:

Person and number (with the help of synthetic means, i. e. forms of words and their inflexions. Cf. He is - they are, I was - they were. She works - the works. Я пишу - ви пишете. Я писав - ми писали.

The imperative mood forms with no reference to a definite person, as in the following sentences: Stop talking! Sit still! Let us sing. He розмовляти! Сидіти тихо! Нумо заспіваємо. Нум я вам розповім.

The affirmative and some interrogative forms of the Indefinite group of tenses and of the pluperfect (давноминулий) tense: I work. I worked. I shall work. He had left before I arrived. Я працюю. Я працював. Я буду працювати. Він якось заходив був, але мене тоді не застав на роботі.

Isomorphism also exists a) in the correlation of the time of action in the matrix close with the time of the expressed action in the subordi nate clause: He says she lives in Kyiv. He said she lived in Kyiv. He will say she will live in Kyiv. Or: she will say that she lived in Kyiv or she thought that she came/would come. Or: 1 thought she had come. Similarly in Ukrainian: Він каже, що вона прийшла; він скаже, що вона прийде/що вона вже приходила; він казав, що вона приходила/ приходила була; b) Isomorphism is also observed in the existence of tenses not correlating with the time of actions expressed in the matrix/ main clause, eg: He - will say that he knows/ knew, had known it. Він скаже, що вона пришила (приходила) приходила була; с) Iso morphism is likewise observed in the existence of some identical forms expressing those same subjunctive mood meanings referring to present or future or to some past action/event.

In English

If I knew that before, I would

come.

If I had known that before, I

would have come.

Were she at home then, she

would come.

In Ukrainian

Якби язнав це раніше, я б прийшов.

Якби я був знав це раніше, я був би

прийшов.

Була б вона в той час удома, вона

прийшла б.

Знав би я був це раніше, я був би

прийшов.

d) Isomorphism is also observed in both languages in the existence of analytical passive voice forms in the past and Future Indefinite tense: He was invited. She will/will not be invited. Він був запрошений. Вона буде/не буде запрошена.

Besides, allomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realisation of some morphological categories in English and Ukrainian. These allomorphic ways are observed in the following:

In the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, aspect and voice forms, as well as in negative/interrogative forms like: He is read ing now. Is he reading now? Does/did he speak English? The passage is being translated The article will have been translated by then, etc.

In the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes - сь, - ся and a corresponding adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the mo ment/period of action. Cf. Петренко зараз/ще, вже, давно/будується. Школа ще (тоді) будувалась/будуватиметься.

Allomorphism exists in the expression of the category of person in Ukrainian imperative mood forms which is alien to English. For example: Пиши! (Ти пиши!) Пишіть! (Ви пишіть!) Іди! Будьмо/ будьте здорові! Встань! Встаньте! Не вір! Не вірте!

Analytical imperative mood forms may have corresponding personal pronouns in English with the verb let (Let me say. Let him/us say. Let them come/say it). The corresponding Ukrainian forms have the particles нум or нумо (for singular or plural forms respectively) and also person and number inflexions of the notional verb. Cf. Нум я запитаю. Нумо заспівайте! Нумо до праці, брати!

4. Isomorphism and allomorphism is observed in the expression of the passive voice in English and Ukrainian.1) Isomorphic is the analytical way of expression of this morphological category, i. e. with the help of the aux iliary verb to be + past participle: Лист був написаний. Лист буде написаний. Alongside of this participial predicative forms in - но, - то are used: Лист буде написано. Все, зрештою, було забуто. Питання про ліквідацію боргів заводом з порядку денного не було знято.2) Allomorphic are forms of expressing the passive voice synthetically that are observed in Ukrainian. These forms are realised a) by means of inflexions of the past participle: Стаття написана. Текст перекладений. Жито скошене. Фрески відновлені. b) With the help of the postfixes - сь, - ся added to the non-perfective verbs in the indicative mood: Хата будується/ будувалась. Місток зводиться. Проект тільки готувавсь, с) With the help of the mentioned predicative participles in - но, - то: Музей зачинено. Питання розв'язано. Ворога розбито. Нічого не забуто. A peculiar feature of passive constructions in English is their much more frequent use than in Ukrainian. This is accounted for a) the use of some English irregular verbs as regular: The office is run by Mr. Brown. The dog was walked by Ann; b) the use of any of the two direct objects as subjects of the sentence in the passive voice: Mother forgave Dora her drawbacks; Dora was forgiven her drawbacks. Dora's drawbacks were forgiven by her mother; c) the use of prepositional objects as subjects in the passive voice: He was taken care of, d) the use of the past participle as a nominal part of the predicate: He was seated, pen in hand, at the table. 'Is he generally liked?'.

Conclusion

In the first chapter we studied typological characteristics and classes of English and Ukrainian verbs that led us to the following results:

In English and Ukrainian due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some combinations a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the object) of the sentence; b) with verbs; с) with prepositions and also with conjunctions.

The verb in the contrasted languages has its characteristic stem building suffixes or postfixes. In English these suffixes are: - ate, - fy, - en, - ise, - esce. In Ukrainian they are: - ти/-ть; - тися; - ться; - сь. Ukrainian verbs, unlike the English ones, may also be formed with the help of diminutive suffixes - ки, - оньк-и, - ці. Among the many prefixes that form the verb stem in English, the following are the most often used: ex-; in-/il-, ir-; contra-; counter-; re-; over-; under-; out-; super-; sub-; mis; un-.

The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in the contrasted languages. These are notional verbs and auxiliary verbs. The latter split into primary, modal and linking verbs. English nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not available in Ukrainian. These are regular verbs and irregular verbs. The subdivision of verbs into classes in Ukrainian is based on the correlation between the infinitival stem of the verb on the one hand and its present or simple future stem on the other. On this morphological basis thirteen classes of verbs are distinguished in Ukrainian. Verbs ending - уть,-ють belong to the first declension group, the verbs-ать,-ять are of the second declension group.

As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages may be of complete predication or of incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication split into some common groups singled out on the basis of their implicit dependent grammatical meanings. These groups are:

1. Subjective verbs,

2. Objective verbs,

3. Terminative verbs,

4. Durative verbs,

5. Mixed - type verbs,

6. Reflexive verbs. Some groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English' and form an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages. These verbs are identified as follows:

1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотн;

2. Indirectly re-flexive/непрямо-зворотні;

3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні;

4. Active-objectless/reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні);

5. Passively-qualitative/reflexive пасивно-якісні;

6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian into groups, which are as follows: auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and linking verbs

The second chapter is devoted to the study of morphological categories of English and Ukrainian verbs.

The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six common morphological categories which are realised partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means. T

Absolute isomorphism is observed in the means of realisation the categories of person and number. In Modern English there are but few forms indicating person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb. They are:

(1) The third person singular Present Indefinite Indicative

(2) The Future Indefinite tense.

In Ukrainian:

1st person singular - the speaker 1-ша особа однина

2nd person singular-one person spoken to 2-га особа однина

3rd person singular - one person or thing 3-я особа однина

1st person plural - other persons 1-ша особа множина

2nd person plural - more than one person spoken to 2-га особа множина

The category of tense. There are 3 tenses in both languages: Past, Present and Future. But there is difference in the number of grammatical tenses. This is because the two languages are different in their morphological structure. The Ukrainian language has a rich morphology while the morphology of English us poor. In English all grammatical tenses are divided into 4 large groups. They are: Indefinite, Continues, Perfect, Perfect Continues. The specific feature of the English language is that all the tenses are analytical but the Present and the Past Indefinite. In Ukrainian practically all tenses are synthetically. Only the Future tense may be both synthetically and analytical. So isomorphism is observed in the means of realisation of:

1) the affirmative and some interrogative forms of the Indefinite group of tenses and of the pluperfect tense;

2) in the correlation of the time of action in the matrix close with the time of the expressed action in the subordinate clause;

3) in the existence of tenses not correlating with the time of actions expressed in the matrix/ main clause;

4) in the existence of some identical forms expressing those same subjunctive mood meanings referring to present or future or to some past action. And allomorphic ways are observed in the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense

Both English and Ukrainian are characterized by the category of aspect. But this category of the two languages is quite different. Allomorphism is observed in the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes - сь, - ся and a corresponding adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the moment of action In English the category of aspect shows the character of an action. That is whether the action is shown as a fact or it shown in its progress in its developments. Practically we have two aspects in English: the continues and the non-continues common aspects. In Ukrainian it is expressed the completeness or incompleteness of an action.

The category of voice. In English and Ukrainian isomorphism is observed in the existence of analytical passive voice forms in the past and Future Indefinite tense. There are different points of view concerning the number of voices both in English and Ukrainian. Isomorphism and allomorphism is observed in the expression of the passive voice in English and Ukrainian.1) Isomorphic is the analytical way of expression of this morphological category, i. e. with the help of the aux iliary verb to be + past participle. Alongside of this participial predicative forms in - но, - то are used.2) Allomorphic are forms of expressing the passive voice synthetically that are observed in Ukrainian. These forms are realised a) by means of inflexions of the past participle b) With the help of the postfixes - сь, - ся added to the non-perfective verbs in the indicative mood. с) With the help of the mentioned predicative participles in - но, - то.

The category of mood We find 3 moods both in English and Ukrainian. The category of mood expresses the relation of an action to reality. The relation of an action to reality may be expressed lexically. Then we use modal verbs. The relation of an action may be expressed lexically and grammatically at the same time. Then we also use modal verbs. It may be phonetically with the help of intonation. The category of mood is one of the most complicated categories especially in English. Allomorphism exists in the expression of the category of person in Ukrainian imperative mood forms which is alien to English. Analytical imperative mood forms may have corresponding personal pronouns in English with the verb let. The corresponding Ukrainian forms have the particles нум or нумо and also person and number inflexions of the notional verb.

Resume

Дипломна робота присвячена порівнянню морфологічних характеристик дієслова англійської та української мови. У ній описуються характеристики, морфологічних категорій дієслова англійської та української мов, їх відмінності та спільні риси.

У роботі 'Порівняльний аналіз морфологічних характеристик дієслова англійської та української мов' ми спробували заповнити прогалини в деяких аспектах порівняльної морфології, таких, як реалізація категорій особи та числа, часу, виду, залогу, способу за допомогою синтетичних засобів (флексій) і частково за допомогою різних аналітичних методів. Все це зумовило важливість роботи.

Метою цього дослідження є порівняння морфологічних характеристик дієслова англійської та української мов.

Відповідно до мети ми планували працювати над вирішенням наступних завдань:

визначити класифікацію дієслова англійської та української мов;

визначити морфологічні категорії дієслова англійської та української мов;

проаналізувати відмінності та спільні риси дієслів відносно категорії особи, числа, часу в англійській та українській мовах;

проаналізувати відмінності та спільні риси дієслів відносно категорії виду, залогу, способу в англійській та українській мовах.

Об'єктом дослідження є дієслово та його морфологічна характеристика в англійській та українській мовах.

Предметом дослідження є зіставний аналіз морфологічних особливостей англійського та українського дієслова.

У першому розділі ми роздивились типологічні характеристики та класи дієслів англійської та української мов, це привело нас до наступних результатів:

Як в українській так і в англійській мовах, способи творення дієслів бувають: префіксальним, суфіксальним або префіксально-суфіксальним. Також дієслова можуть утворюватись від іменників, прикметників, числівників.

Головний розподіл дієслів у обох мовах є однаковий, це розподіл на смислові та допоміжні дієслова. У англійській мові допоміжні розподіляються на: початкові, модальні та дієслова - зв'язки, а смислові на правильні та неправильні дієслова. В українській мові дієслова розподіляються на 13 морфологічних класів, а також мають 2 дієвідміни.

У другому розділі ми порівняли морфологічні категорії дієслів англійської та української мов, це привело нас до наступних результатів:

Існує шість морфологічних категорій, такі як категорія особи та числа, часу, виду, залогу, способу. У цих категоріях ми знаходимо ізоморфізми, тобто спільні риси, або аломорфізми - відмінності.

Абсолютний ізоморфізм ми спостерігаємо у реалізації категорії особи та числа в українській та англійській мовах.

В обох мовах є три часи: минулий, теперішній, майбутній. Але різниця у кількості граматичних часів, причиною цьому є різні морфологічні структури англійської та української мов. Граматичні часи англійської мови поділені на чотири групи. Відмінною рисою цієї мови є те, що усі часи, окрім теперішнього та минулого невизначеного, є аналітичними. В українській мові майже усі часи синтетичні, лише майбутнє може бути аналітичним і синтетичним.

Реалізація категорії виду дуже відрізняється в українській та англійській мовах. Аломорфізм виявляється у відсутності в українській мові тривалого виду. У англійській мові ми маємо тривалий та не тривалий вид, в українській дієслова можуть бути доконаного та недоконаного виду.

У категорії залогу в англійській та українській мовах. Аломорфізм виявляється у реалізації пасивного залогу за допомогою синтетичних засобів, а ізоморфізм це аналітичний спосіб реалізації категорії за допомогою схеми (to be + past participle).

Є три способи дієслова як в англійській, так і в українській мові. Категорія способу відображає взаємини між дією та реальністю. Ці взаємини можуть бути виражені лексично або лексично та граматично одночасно та із застосуванням модальних дієслів. Також категорія виду виражається фонетично за допомогою інтонації. Ця категорія є найскладнішою в англійській мові.

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Supplements 1. Tables

1. Morphological Classes of Ukrainian Verbs (Table 1).

2. Morphological categories (Table2)

3. Endings for е stem (Classes 1, 2, and 3), (Table3)

4. Endings for и stem (Classes 4), (Table4)

5. Declension of: нести (stem: нес-) (Class 1 verb), вернути (stem: верн-) (Class 2 verb), читати (stem: чита-) (Class 3 verb), говорити - (stem: говор-) (Class 4 verb) (Table5)

6. Conjugation in the present (Table6)

7. Future Tense: First Form (Table7)

8. Future Tense: Second Form (Table8)

9. The present and Past Subjunctive (Table 9)

SUPPLEMENTS 2. Practical contrastive analysis of the text

She gave (1а) a startled cry. Вона зойкнула (1в) `What's the matter? ' he asked. (2а)'У чому річ?' запитав (2в) він. Notwistanding the darkness of the shattered room he saw (3а) her face on a sudden distraught with terror. Незважаючи на темряву зачиненої кімнати, він побачив (3в), що її обличчя спотворене виразом жаху. `Some one just tried (5а) the door. ' 'Хтось смикнув (5в) двері.'. Well, perhaps it was (6а) the amah, or one of the boys. '.)'Мабуть то була (6в) служниця, або хтось з прислуги They never come (7а) at this time.)'Вони ніколи не приходять (7в) у цей час. They know I always sleep after tiffin. ' Вони знають, що я завжди сплю після обіду' Who else could (10а) it be (11а)? ' 'Хто ще це міг (10в) бути (11в)?'`Walter,' she whispered, (12а) her lips trembling. 'Волтер,' Вона прошепотіла (12в) тремтячими губами. She pointed (14а) to his shoes. Вона показала (14в) йому на взуття.